Thursday, May 25, 2006

Islam, Sunnis and Shi'ites

Islam, Sunnis and Shi'ites

Sunni
Main branch of Islam.
accepts separation of political and religious powers
Caliph is political leader, delegates religious task to Ulemas.
Caliph is the ultimate "defender" of the faith.
Ulemas decisions are revokable, but only by a council of ulemas

Shi'ites
orthodox: "Ali followers", splits with mainstream Islam primarily regarding question of succession of The Prophet (according to them, it should be hereditary).
powers are inseparables: concept of Imam
Imamates: Word of Imam carries a weight and is almost as binding as writtings, decisions are not challengable

Example of conflicts within Sunni ideology during Abbassid Caliphate:
in certain periods of time, superceeding authorities of law-givers over others became a problem of state and confusions followed. During the Abbassid Caliphate, 3 successive Caliphs imposed one form of religious dogmas: Mu'tazilites dogma, upon scholastic issue of Qu'ran as created or uncreated. They took the former stand and imposed it as state doctrine and repressed opponents (inquisition-like).
This illustrates situations of theological interpretations by political authorities with political consequences. Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, founder of a legal school (hanbalism), is put to jail, trialed, and becomes a symbol of "resistance". Point is, within sunni belief there existed conflicts. This doctrine (creation of Qu'ran) lasted 3 decades, after which it was reversed completely, strict interpretation of law became state policy, persecutors became persecuted. Islam and islamic law should be the center of political and social life. Names of caliphs shows importance of justifying there positions in terms of religious foundation of power: "al-mansur": "the one made victorious by god";
"al-mahdi".

Shi'ites
In Shi'a Islam, no real oppenness to other communities, which had to hide their identities... Founding the Imamate institution, and of own hadith collection, in reaction to sunnism
Hadith: collection of everything that is related to Mohammed. Shi'ites only collected Hadith materials transmitted by members of prophets tribe, all other reports being eliminated.

Branches of Shi'ites

The Seveners
Ja'far al-Sadiq, important player in determining Shi'a ideology.
He's the Sixth Imam. dies 765. around central question of leadership of muslims, still unresolved today, Ja'far will start the following dogma: Imam should be named by predeccessor: designation of sucessor by predecessor, from line of Imams connecting all the way back to prophet muhammed through Ali. Each imam numbered. Ja'far son was Ismail, eldest son. Also had another son, youngest, Musa. Traditionally, Imam would name is eldest son, but story wants that Ismail was wether drunk or dead at time of naming successor, and Ja'far named Musa.
A minority group of dissident wanted Ismail to be Imam instead of the Musa. This "dissident" group still existing today, the Ismailites, or the Seveners Shi'as (Ismailiyya).

The Twelvers
The 11th Imam (Hasan), has no sons. He named a successor, but this one disappearred! Followers of this branch believes that he was elevated directly to heaven. He is reffered to as "Muhammad", the "waited for Imam", or "hidden Imam". Story wants that he'll come out at end of time with Jesus and establish justice. He's the 12th Imam. A Majority of Shi'a Islam still holds to that belief. Shia's did not displayed their beliefs and identity before 8th century, by fear of repression under Abbassids dynasty.

Divison exists between believers of seveners & twelvers. Primarily a political distinction within dogma of shi'ism.

Most of Central Asia, Iran, but also parts of Arab World is Shi'a.

Islam: summary

Muhamad born around 571 CE
Tribe of Quraysh, town of Mecca, region of Hijaz
"Call of God" around 609 CE
Accepts to move to Yathrib (Medina, "The City") in 622 CE
to become arbiter in conflicts and for protection
This migration is called the Hijra
Migration was set as Year 1, starting arabic calender (622 = Year 1 of Hijra)
City of Yarthrib became known simply as Al-Madina (The City)
Community of Al-Madina was called the Umma (An important concept in Islam)
Will conquer Mecca

Muhammad did, in his lifetime, achieved power , exercised political and prophetic authority (unlike Moses, Jesus):
As apostole of God, brings and teach revelations
As head of Umma: promulgated laws, dispensed justice, conduct diplomacy makes war
Umma, the community, becomes a State
Death of Mohammed: 8 june 632
Restore "true monotheism"
last of the prophets (Abram, Jesus, etc...)

second leader of the Umma chosen amongst close circle of followers of Muhammad: Abu Bakr, takes title of Khalif ("successor")
Institution of the Caliphate, supreme sovereign office of the islamic world

632 to 656: the 4 "rightly guided caliphs"
656 to 661: Ali, prophet's cousin, married to daughter of Prophet (Fatima), is "chosen" as caliph. This "hereditary" succession - kinship between a Caliph and The Prophet - is not seen well by everyone. It is seen as a fundamental cause for the historical split of Islam in two main branches, Sunni and Shi'a.
661, beginning of Umayyad dynasty, following a Coup by governor of Syria.
Will last until 750. Capital established in Syria. Leadership becomes hereditary.
747 beginning of a revolt in Persia.
750, Abbassid caliphate (kinsmen of prophet, descendants of Prophet's through Uncle Al-Abbas - line of heredity contested by Shi'as)
Capital moves from Syria (Umayyad stronghouse) to Bagdad.
House of Abbas will reign for 5 centuries (until fall of Bagdad)

In 908, first Fatimid Caliph, of Shi'a faith, challenging Abbassid dynasty, established in north-africa (it denies the Abbassid Sunni Caliphs any political or religious authority over Islam and Muslims)
Peaks around 1050, brief capture of Bagdad

In Shi'a faith, the Caliph is replaced by an Imam, an absolute monarch who is infaillible, rules by hereditary right of divinely ordained family.
3 branches of gov: religious, civilian and bureaucratic
civil and bureaucracy took in charge by a wazir
religious realm not unlike a party and propaganda organization

11th century: coming of the mongols

February 1258: Bagdad falls to mongols. Abbassid caliph and family put to death. Ends of caliphate institute.

Islam Abbassid Caliphate 750-1258

Islam Abbassid Caliphate 750-1258, schism and concepts sunnis/shi'ites

Dynasty started in 750, following the 747 revolt in Persia against moral corruption of Ummayyad dynasty. Caliphs descends from Prophets family, by Prophet's Uncle Abbas. Center of gravity of political Islam moved from Syria to Bagdad.

Ideology of shi'ism - originally, abbsassid dynasty is about unity of all muslims, of all origins, around one state (al-dawla : the state)

Aimed at restauring the ideal muslim community and order associated to Prophet Muhammed.

It aimed to include all the existing members as equals (arabs or non-arabs), concept of Mawali - non-arab muslim converts

Most Mawali from persian origin. Abbassid caliphs expressed there willingness to establish a social system that respects the rights of all on the basis of faith.

Struggles surrounding definition of what is a muslim, up to 780 ac
750-850: one central adminstrative authority
during this, Islam had showed great progresses in many spheres of humanity, in evolution of practices and blablabla...

- Military power of state shifted from arab to turks and to some extent, persians.

- Religious institutions and offices by arabs, administrative offices hold by persians (during Abbassids dynasty)

- Effective political power again shifted gradually from Caliphs to local emirs (governors), until caliphs had only nominal authority. The institution nevertheless lasted until mongol invasions.

In reinforcing and consolidating muslim identity, contributing factors are:
(in the sunni concept)
- the collection of the hadith materials - from the teachings of the Prophet, collected and classsified and made available to the faithfuls (canonisation of writtings), played a role in substantiating the muslim identity
- emergence of an elite group, the Ulema, or scholars & jurist, as religious authorities coming to foreground and emphasis of qu'ran and hadith as a way to remain a true muslim. there was ulemas before, but in abbassid dynasty, they gain importance and are the ultimate authorithy in interpreting the qu'ran, not the caliph.
- language written and spoken in government and religious realms is arab, litterature and poetry is persian. Non-arab converts brings something into muslim community, enriches community.

Sunni
accepts separation of political and religious powers
Caliph is political leader, delegates religious task to Ulemas.
Caliph is the ultimate "defender" of the faith.
Ulemas decisions are revokable, but only by a council of ulemas

Shi'ites
orthodox: "Ali followers"
powers are inseparables: concept of Imam
Imamates: Word of Imam carries a weight and is almost as binding as writtings, decisions are not challengable

Example of conflicts within Sunni ideology during Abbassid Caliphate:
in certain periods of time, superceeding authorities of law-givers over others became a problem of state and confusions followed. During the Abbassid Caliphate, 3 successive Caliphs imposed one form of religious dogmas: Mu'tazilites dogma, upon scholastic issue of Qu'ran as created or uncreated. They took the former stand and imposed it as state doctrine and repressed opponents (inquisition-like).
This illustrates situations of theological interpretations by political authorities with political consequences. Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, founder of a legal school (hanbalism), is put to jail, trialed, and becomes a symbol of "resistance". Point is, within sunni belief there existed conflicts. This doctrine (creation of Qu'ran) lasted 3 decades, after which it was reversed completely, strict interpretation of law became state policy, persecutors became persecuted. Islam and islamic law should be the center of political and social life. Names of caliphs shows importance of justifying there positions in terms of religious foundation of power: "al-mansur": "the one made victorious by god";
"al-mahdi".

Shi'ites
In Shi'a Islam, no real oppenness to other communities, which had to hide their identities... Founding the Imamate institution, and of own hadith collection, in reaction to sunnism
Hadith: collection of everything that is related to Mohammed. Shi'ites only collected Hadith materials transmitted by members of prophets tribe, all other reports being eliminated.

Branches of Shi'ites

The Seveners
Ja'far al-Sadiq, important player in determining Shi'a ideology.
He's the Sixth Imam. dies 765. around central question of leadership of muslims, still unresolved today, Ja'far will start the following dogma: Imam should be named by predeccessor: designation of sucessor by predecessor, from line of Imams connecting all the way back to prophet muhammed through Ali. Each imam numbered. Ja'far son was Ismail, eldest son. Also had another son, youngest, Musa. Traditionally, Imam would name is eldest son, but story wants that Ismail was wether drunk or dead at time of naming successor, and Ja'far named Musa.
A minority group of dissident wanted Ismail to be Imam instead of the Musa. This "dissident" group still existing today, the Ismailites, or the Seveners Shi'as (Ismailiyya).

The Twelvers
The 11th Imam (Hasan), has no sons. He named a successor, but this one disappearred! Followers of this branch believes that he was elevated directly to heaven. He is reffered to as "Muhammad", the "waited for Imam", or "hidden Imam". Story wants that he'll come out at end of time with Jesus and establish justice. He's the 12th Imam. A Majority of Shi'a Islam still holds to that belief. Shia's did not displayed their beliefs and identity before 8th century, by fear of repression under Abbassids dynasty.

Divison exists between believers of seveners & twelvers. Primarily a political distinction within dogma of shi'ism.

Most of Central Asia, Iran, but also large part of arab world is shi'a.

"When the Cold War ended, I had some hope..."

Kenneth Waltz, structuralism
lecture in H110, october 15 2004


(hold man trembling voice) "When the Cold War ended, I had some hope..."

GW Bush: "thinking inside-out", is it only bush administration that would have invaded Afghanistan or any in same situation? probably
But Iraq?
American behaviour overwhelmingly one of a powerful country using its power, so probably it would... US fought so many wars in its history in so few years. Look at last 20-25 years...
Reagan: Liban (embarrassing), then... Grenada!
Bush 1: Gulf War, + "Op Just Cause" in Panama, unjustified and public opinion sanctionned Bush 1 for doing war unjustfully...
Clinton: Kosovo, Somalia
Bush 2: Afghanistan, Iraq

it's kinda the general behavior of the US to wage wars, not just Bush 2.

look at Latin-America... Cold-War, US military presence everywhere USSR was not! USSR was being "paranoiac about being surrounded by enemies because it was exactely so! US moving in where USSR is moving out... US even bringing in NATO former satellites and soviet republics.

we do what we say what we would not do

external situation shapes internal situation

countries in world history that possesses immense power normally behave in using its power, US is doing exactely that.
France, Spain, UK and Rome each had there times and did the same.

Bush administration is "traditional realists" about how state behave on international state: bad states behave badly, good states behave good.
Raymond Aaron quoted.
Kissinger quoted. "legitimate states do legitimate things"

Morgenthau: right to intervene in internal, domestic affairs since it inflluence international affairs: bad domestic policies in USSR has strong influence on state of world affairs.

Franco: indebted to Germany for victory over republicans. But didn't go to war b)w 1939 & 1945, did "good" thing, Spain relatively sparred from destruction of WW2 (yet already scarred by civil war), and Franco regime survived Hitler's Reich by 30 years.

Allende, dully elected. Kissinger charges was that Allende would "unintentionally" make socialism slip out of control out of is hands despite he being a democrat. Therefore, right of US to intervene.

"rogue states" that can't be deterred or contained... Bush "flip-flopping" about Iraq & Hussein: prior 2001 on record about saying Hussein can't do anything and can't go anywhere, he's contained and deterred... than post 9/11, he's rogue and dangerous.
Kaddafy...

US use of nuclear force as "blackmailing" tool in Korea, early 50's....
Nukes as weapon of aggression... how would you use that? impossible strategic use of such a weapon... nonesense... in state context..
but for terrorism context... in state context, gotta have another state to deter, agress...
now terrorist have nowhere to turn to (in terms of countries to grant them asylum)...

3rd piece of puzzle: counterweight to dominant power
balance of power: no material to reconstruct the balance... US vs. nobody...
European Union? everything it needs (population, military might, econoomy) except being a political being effectively... Europe not in fact a state.
China? noticable military spending, but not - and wisely so - into a huge military all-out build-up to position itself yet as a counterweight to the US
"fight, sustain and prevail in a nuke war" - caspar weinberger
Iraq? hahahaha...
US? deterring itself... it's crazy!

nuke much more difficult to line-up than one thinks, regular standing army is expensive to line up... and balancing is hard to do and costly, tricky, hard to find the right moment to comply... forming and reforming coalition, really hard! think about coalitions against Napoleon, so think about coalitionning against the US, ouf!, what a cost that would be...
only option left: unilateralism of the US. this would be so for quite some times.

les fractures de la mondialisation: exemple de la Chine et de l'Amérique du Sud

Conférence sur "les fractures de la mondialisation: exemple de la Chine et de l'Amérique du Sud"
UQÀM - 23 septembre 2004
Organisée par l'Institut d'études internationales de Montréal
www.ieim.uqam.ca


Présentateur: Pierre Baudet, Alternative
Rythme effarant du "buzz" de la mondialisation
- un autre mot pour gestion de la décroissance?

Première partie de la conférence: l'Amérique du Sud
Amérique du Sud: 800 millions
Depuis début '90: une renaissance politique
Socialement et économiquement: une catastrophe!
- lutte contre la pauvreté

Présentation de Sylvain Turcotte
De la chaire Raoul-Dandurand

Rôle particulier de l'Amérique du Sud dans la mondialisation
2 grands mensonges et une vérité à propos de l'AduS

1) Premier grand mensonge: La mondialisation est imposée par les pays du nord en Amérique du Sud
Faux
D'où proviennent les idées libérales en AduS? De loin.

Années '70:
première grande fracture en AduS: le modèle de la fermeture économique: crise des "régimes autocentrés".
Ceci mène a des recherches d'alternatives:
- Modèles ultra-libéraux: Chili, Uruguay, Bolivie, Argentine
- Idées keynésiennes encore pourtant très dominante (interventionnisme d'état).
- Cône sud: tentative ultra-libérale, "municipalisation", délocalisation, privatisation... unilatéralement.
- Le modèle chilien à une influence majeure sur l'ensemble de l'AduS.
- Influence mondialisatrice provient en fait du cône sud de l'AduS. Ces "modèles" ont ensuite servi d'école au FMI pour implantation ailleurs.
- échecs de l'économie précédente
- implantations de modèles originaux locaux
- diffusion du modèle (ex: conseillers chilien au Mexique)
- Les moteurs mondiaux de diffusion: influences sur Reagan & Thatcher et leur politique économique

2) Deuxième grand mensonge: la mondialisation fait converger les économies vers un modèle unique

Faux

Il n'y a jamais eu autant de diversité, de multiples stratégies de sortie de crise
1850 à 1970: même pattern uniforme
Maintenant:
Chili: modèle keynesien
Argentine: Ultra-privatisation, exportation

Le Chili: finance le FMI
Le Pérou: reçoit de l'argent du FMI
Le Mexique: partenaire de l'ALENA
Chili: stratégie de diversification des partenaires commerciaux & privatisation des fonds de pension

- Différents degrés d'ouverture aux mouvements de capitaux = différentes stratégies

3) Une grande vérité: l'AduS est fracturée socialement

Vrai

Les mouvements de capitaux ont créés des crises énormes en AduS

Mexique, Argentines:
- Crises financières = fracture sociale
- Écart riches-pauvres = fossé économique

Pourtant: l'AduS est un modèle et un moteur de mondialisation (ex: Brésil & ouverture des marchés) et est un zélotes des politiques libérales. À la fois: lutte contre le protectionnisme du Nord.
La crise génère ses paradoxes.

Présentation de Victor Armory
Sociologue, chaire de recherche "mondialisation, citoyenneté et démocratie".

2 "images" de l'AduS
1) inégalité: une société "dual" sur la redistribution des richesses (un espace national, 2 populations aux conditions extrêmes malgré un modèle dynamique. Il n'y a pas seulement des have et des have not, la "frontière" est poreuse et mobile, mais la mobilité n'est pas une "tendance" non plus.
2) fragmentation: affaiblissement de la cohésion sociale

En AduS, la mondialisation est: "brésilianisation" du monde, généralisation d'une société "dualisée"

Frontière de la citoyennisation est superficielle
Société de gagnants/perdants: brèche.
Affaiblissement de la solidité et de la cohésion des classes. Individualisme.

Effets positifs: mondialisation économique et politique
- arène / scène publique plus grande: nécessitée de la démocratie, de plus en plus assise et acceptée (avant, droite comme gauche étaient réticentes à cela)
- l'existence d'une presse indépendante: multiplicité de voix
- une augmentation des attentes = risque de frustrations mais moteur de mobilisations sociales, affirmation de groupes sur scène publique d'insatisfaits pratiquant leur citoyenneté. dépassement de la "realpolitik".

Rupture d'avec les modèles populistes

diminution des mesures de contrôle sociale (politiquement. dans la société: patriarcat)
+
démocratie et marché
=
de nouvelles identités s'expriment

- valorisation de l'individualité
(V. Armory fait une distinction entre individualité et individualisme. Je n'ai pas bien compris laquelle).

Points négatifs:
- désillusion, dégoût face à la politique: violence anti-politique
- manque d'appui des institutions politiques
- monté de l'individualisme
- division sociale de groupe autrement cohérent
- fossé riche/pauvre

En AduS, les sociétés ont toujours été inégalitaires

- l'identité n'est plus stable
- individualisation: manque de confiance envers le voisin & cynisme politique
- banditisme

Dérives troublantes:
- "dépolitisation" portée par des groupes populaires: repli subjectivité/individualité local.
Est-ce une stratégie de re-politisation ou bien une vague de fond?

Deuxième partie de la conférence: La Chine
Vers 2050, sera l'économie la plus dominante

Présentation d'André Laliberté

Secret: la Chine n'est plus un état socialiste.... "latino-américanisation de la Chine": dérive autoritaire
En phase de devenir une société des plus inégalitaire.
Un chinois a dis au conférencier que pour lui un exemple de pays socialiste c'est le Canada, voir les États-Unis!
- Transformation sociale chinoise nous affecterons tous car elles auront des conséquences politiques.

4 grands cas de "fractures":

a) un paysan est 6X plus pauvre qu'un citadin (Mao s'en retournerait dans sa tombe!)
Fracture villes/campagne
Croissance du niveau de vie:
- en ville: 8%
- En campagne: 4%
La différence va en s'accroissant
40% de la population est urbaine
Politique de migration urbaine (urbanisation) est sujet a une série de dilemmes:
- 150 millions de population excédentaire en campagne
- chantiers de construction gigantesque

b) clivage côte/intérieur
un vieux clivage qui est de retour
Shangai: condition de vie comparable à Taiwan
Intérieur: comparable à... 1940.
À l'ouest: minorités nationales réticentes à l'immigration intérieure de population majoritairement chinoise.

c) fracture entre ancienne et nouvelle économie
Au nord: présence d'industrie lourde d'État. Peu rentable, cause problème a la poursuite de la politique économique. Possibilité de considérables mises-à-pieds de gens qui ont été spolié par le système contrairement au sud... Crise sociale en vue.

d) fracture de générations:
- limitation de la croissance de la population
- plus de gens qui arrivent sur le marché du travail dans des conditions précaires.
- vieillissement de la population + sous-développement = crac boum hue
- problème de pensions

Présentation d'Hélène Piquet

Réformes juridiques & conséquences sociales:
- le droit crée des fracture ou les fractures sont pré-existente?
Droit du travail
- les investissement étranger en Chine ont des conséquences sur les emplois.
- Nouveau code qui date de 1994: instauration d'un "contrat de travail" qui est une reconnaissance implicite que le travail est une relation inégalitaire
- légalité de fermer des industries si elles sont non-rentables: obligations "bidons" de tenir des "consultations" avec des syndicats d'employés qui sont inexistants ou sous contrôle (du Parti).

- Nouvelle technologie implique la connaissance de technologies de pointes: impossibilité de replacer les employés des industries lourdes.

- le nouveau code inclus cependant ceci: "un droit à la dignité de la personne humaine", spécifiquement un droit à la santé qui implique une obligation d'assistance institutionnelle à une personne malade
-Volonté et reconnaissance d'un concept de "mieux-être".
- Droit d'être payé, payé à temps et d'être payé pour le temps supplémentaire

- De plus, le code est invoqué: évidence que le système judiciaire chinois se sert effectivement des ses outils légaux, pas seulement lois non-appliquées.

Cold War: a brief introduction

2 outlooks:
a) The Cold War can be seen as the antagonism opposing the Soviet Union (1917 to 1991) to liberal democracies.
b) The Cold War can be seen as the rivalry opposing the USSR and the US post-WWII.
Both point of views makes the Cold War end with the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

The Cold War is a period of protracted, intense activity between the USSR and the US. Fought through proxy wars for influence, but no open, direct conflicts.

The period is between years 1945 to 1989, with a peak between 1947 and 1963. Between years 1947 and 1955, there's no summit between the two superpowers.

On the part of the US, 2 main policies/strategies are developed and put into practice:

A) Deterrence
B) Containment
- avoid communism and/or USSR to spread
- by promoting liberal economic model

Orthodox view on beginning of CW makes the USSR at fault for it beginning, mainly since they didn't withdrew from Eastern Europe after WWII. Blame is on Stalin.

Revisionist view argues that US must take the blame for the origin of the CW. At the end of WWII, there's no balance of power: USSR is weak, without nukes, and they lost millions of men. The industrial production is half what it was in 1939. It feels unsafe, while the US enjoys superiority on every counts.

A variation on revisionist reading focus on leadership change in the US at the end of WWII. In 1945, Roosevelt dies and is replaced by Truman. Policy changes along: Truman is more of an hard-liner than Roosevelt. Until then, The US holds Stalin as "a moderate". Furthermore, market indicators shows that US has a huge stake in reshaping the economic world order. (Marshall Plan, years 1945 through 1949)

6 issues that makes a difference: root-causes of CW - 1945

A) Fate of Poland and Eastern Europe
- Soviet aggrandizing sphere of influence, controlling several countries and declining to promise holding elections in occupied territories.

B) US ending aid and loans to support USSR war effort
an economic pre-blocus.

C) Question of Germany
- At Yalta, US and USSR agrees to extract 10 billions out of Germany for reparation. At Postdam conference, USSR wants payment be done. The US suggest that USSR should pay itself from bounty in occupied territories. Churchill tries to oppose, without success. At Postdam, furthermore disagreement on future of Germany.

D) East-Asia
USSR joins Pacific War late, but nevertheless wants a share of occupied Japan. USSR holds that it "did the most in Germany", while US occupies half of it. US refuses.

E) The Bomb
USSR has no nukes. US rejects so-called "Baruch Plan" to give the UN control over nuclear bombs.

F) Eastern Mediteranean and Middle-East
Russia pulls out of Iran, but puts eyes and pressure upon Turkey and Greece, both in great turmoil.

The Truman Doctrine (1947)
Doctrine emergence context: the British influence in the mediteranean and elsewwhere is declining to USSR. Only power capable of countering USSR influence is the US. Truman articulates is doctrine, that holds that "it is US duty to protect free people everywhere in the world", thus making the US the "champion of the idea of freedom and liberty".

Initially, Eastern Europe is part of the Marshall Plan. USSR nevertheless closes the door to access to plan because it fears its power of influence (case of Czechoslovakia).

By then, the US fear that Stalin "becomes a second Hitler", a radical change in rethoric following Rooosevelt.

By 1949, the USSR develops a nuclear weapon, and China turns communist. Document NSC-68 is issued, proposing dramatic increase in military spending. Truman will postpone the plan suggested by NSC-68 until Korean crisis of 1950, which will turn into a nasty proxy war that lasts until 1953.

By this period, US society enters Mccarthysm: a hardening of ideological position, hostility and intolerance to anyone opposing/criticizing US authority, regime and President. This crystallizes the massive ideological difference between the US and the USSR.

Objectives of World powers:
- The USSR is normally interested in tangible, territorial gains.
- The US is interested in less tangible, "new-institutions"-minded gains.

Truman wants to implement the UN and a World-Wide integrated economic system. The USSR is driven by a need for security, the US having superiority (The Bomb). Both are driven by a goal of expansion.

The USSR shares way to less information to facilitate cooperation, while the US has too many voices, which makes it difficult for receiving end to understand what is the "official" one.

Is containment about the USSR or about communism?
Case of Tito's Yugoslavia is a good way to explore situation.
outwardly, it's about communism as an ideology, everywhere it is. But Truman will support Tito, that breaks away from USSR influence while remaining a planned, centralized communist economy. This indicates that containment is directed toward Soviet Union alone or principally. In 1970, the normalization with China will add to this tangent of containing primarily USSR over coommunism.

In 1953, Stalin dies, and his legacy is soon discredited by the emerging new leadership. This offres an occasion for the smoothening in relations between the US and the USSR, called "The Thaw".

But, in 1959, the Cuban revolution brings the CW into a new context: the Americas is now within the sphere of influence of USSR and communism (direct challenge to Monroe Doctrine). Follows the Bay of Pigs fiasco and the October Missile Crisis, wich puts the superpowers in direct confrontation and creates a stalemate that makes 1963 the peak of nuclear tension.

Following 1963, relations between both superpowers will enter an easier phase, called "Détente". It will last until USSR invasion of Afghanistan.

Une introduction au Chili contemporain

Une introduction au Chili contemporain

Quelques indicateurs

Indépendance (de l’Espagne) déclarée: 18 septembre 1810
Indépendance acquise : 12 février 1818

Population: 16 000 000
Population autochtone Mapuche (plus large minorité): 600 000

Capitale: Santiago de Chile ("Saint-Jacques du Chili")
Population: 4 700 000

Superficie du pays: 757 000 KM carrés (inclus l'île de Pâques)

Produit interieur brut (PIB, par capita): environ 10 000 US$
Principal produit d'exportation: le cuivre
Balance d'export (2004): 30 milliards US$
Principal produit d'importation: le pétrole
Balance d'import (2004): 22.5 milliards US$
Secteur industriel (cuivres, acier, etc.): 39% du PIB
Pourcentage de la population active employée par le secteur industriel: 23%
Taux de chômage (2004): 8-10%
Population sous le seuil de la pauvreté (2004): 20%
Pourcentage de la population active syndiquée : 11%

Service militaire : obligatoire, 2 ans
Peine de mort: abolie (sauf tribunaux militaires)
Rang dans l'échelle de la liberté de la presse
(Reporters sans frontières): No. 42 (Canada: 18 - Corée du Nord: 167)

Chef d’État : Présidente Ricardo Lagos
(Parti Socialiste, membre de la coalition « Concertacion »)
Prochaine élection présidentielle : Décembre 2005
Nombres d’années sans coup d’État: 32 ans

Devise nationale : « Par la raison, où par la force! »


Contexte général historique

La « préhistoire »

La présence autochtone au Chili remonte a environ 10 000 ans. Ce sont les indiens Mapuche (aussi connu sous le nom d’Araucanos) qui ont d’abord occupés le territoire. Les Incas ont envahis le nord de l’actuel Chili. Les Mapuches, moins structurés socialement que les incas (contrairement à l’empire Inca, on ne parle pas d’un empire Mapuche, qui est une civilisation principalement organisée autour de la famille étendue, sans grand système politique et guerrier qui intègre l’ensemble des Mapuches), résistent cependant avec succès à la poussée vers le sud de l’envahisseur.

La résilience Mapuche sera cependant mise à rude épreuve avec l’arrivé des conquistadors, explorateurs, puis colons et commerçants espagnols. Parti du Pérou, dont il font la conquête en 1531, les espagnols organisent en 1534-1535 des expéditions avec à leurs tête Diego de Almagro. C’est lui qui donnera au territoire le nom de « Chili », inspiré du mot Inca pour désigner le territoire. Quelque interprétations possible de la signification du mot sont « Neige », « là où la terre se termine » et l’onomatopée Mapuche du bruit de l’oiseau, soit « cheelee-cheelee ».

Les expéditions d’Almagro sont les premières, mais il appartient à Pedro de Valvidia d’établir les premières installations permanentes du territoire, dont Santiago (fondée le 12 février 1541).

La présence espagnole n’est pas sans causer de heurts importants avec les indiens Mapuches, et les 200 premières années de la présence coloniale espagnole au Chili sont marqués par une guerre incessante où les Mapuches seront constamment repoussés vers le Sud. On appelle cette période la « guerre d’Arauco » (1553-1880). Elle est combattue à différents niveaux d’intensité, mais se termine en 1880 quand l’armée chilienne élimine les dernières forces Mapuches structurées. C’est à ce moment que la partie sud du Chili est ajoutée au territoire actuel (Concepcion était alors la limite sud).

L’indépendance

En 1810, le roi Ferdinand est déposé du trône d’Espagne par Napoléon, qui le remplace par son frère Jérôme. Le Chili déclare son indépendance de l’Espagne, officiellement pour démontrer sa loyauté au roi légitime d’ Espagne et son rejet du nouveau monarque.

Cependant, à la restauration de Ferdinand en 1815, le Chili est réticent à retourner sa souveraineté et une armée doit être envoyé d’Europe pour reprendre le territoire (« la reconquista »). Le partisan chilien Bernardo O’Higgins prend la tête du mouvement nationaliste et organise une armée chilienne qui combattra les forces espagnoles pendant 2 ans (1816-1818), appuyée par l’Argentine voisine. O’Higgins triomphe des forces espagnoles lors de quelques combats importants et Ferdinand cède : L’indépendance est « accordée » le 12 février 1818. Bernardo O’Higgins devient le chef du nouvel État chilien (« Guide Suprême », 1818-1823).

Bernardo O’Higgins

Cette indépendance est principalement le fruit d’une conscience nationale qui s’affirme chez les citoyens d’origine espagnole, et elle est appuyée par la classe bourgeoise chilienne (les grands propriétaires terriens), qui s’opposent aux avantages de l’aristocratie espagnole et les contraintes au commerce imposées pour satisfaire aux intérêts de la couronne d’Espagne. Ainsi, une république est proclamée qui abolie les privilèges de la noblesse, mais le pouvoir politique, militaire et économique effectif demeure entre les mains d’une portion limitée de la population. Pour les 100 années suivantes, une démocratie limitée marquée par un régime autoritaire (mais stable) domine la scène. Les institutions sont inspiré du modèle américains, avec l’établissement d’un Congrès National à deux chambres : une chambre des députés et un sénat. Le drapeau national est aussi inspiré du drapeau américain.

19ième siècle

Le Chili du 19ième siècle est un pays qui prospère via son intégration au type de commerce encouragé par la puissance maritime d’alors, l’Angleterre. L’exportation de ressources primaires – principalement le nitrate, utilisé comme fertilisant et dans l’armement, et le cuivre – assurent une prospérité interssante a la classe dominante. Le Chili importe beaucoup.

Coincés au Sud par la rébellion perpétuelle des Mapuche et à l’Ouest par les Andes, les Chiliens décident d’étendre leur territoire vers le Nord en envahissant ses voisins le Pérou et la Bolivie. C’est la guerre de 1879-1883, qui permet au Chili d’annexer un territoire riche en nitrate représentant 1/3 de son actuelle superficie et qui frustre la Bolivie de son accès à la mer.



1920-1970

Les années 1920 sont marqué au Chili par la première période d’instabilité de la république, et ses premières juntes militaires. Entre 1924 et 1932, 10 gouvernements se succèdent, allant des nationalistes de droite aux ultras-progressistes de gauche. Le parti communiste chilien est créé en 1922. Une république de type soviétique est instaurée pendant quelques jours en 1932, avec à sa tête un type nommé Marmaduke Grove.

La crise économique qui frappe l’économie mondiale en 1929 frappe évidemment le Chili, très dépendant de ses exportations qui ne valent plus soudain qu’une fraction de sa valeur des années 20. Le Chili, jusqu’alors peu interventionniste, établie quelques mesures sociales. Les groupes populaires gagnent en influence.

En 1958, le Dr. Salvador Allende Goosens, du Parti Socialiste, est battu aux élections présidentielles par seulement 30 000 voix.

En 1964, Eduardo Frei, du Parti Chrétien-Démocrate, est élu président. Il offre comme plateforme électorale plusieurs mesures économiques et sociales progressistes, notamment la « chilénaisation » de l’économie (i.e. : le transfert a des propriétaires chiliens d’important secteurs économiques contrôlés par des intérêts étrangers, notamment les mines de cuivres entièrement dominées par les américains), et une réforme agraire pour redistribuer les terres vers les petits propriétaires (80% des terres sont la propriété d’une poignée de très grands propriétaires terriens).

Les réformes Frei sont initialement un succès mais se heurtent rapidement à la résistance des secteurs et des forces politiques impliqués. La droite le considère trop progressiste, la gauche trop hésitant dans ses réformes. Il nationalise quelques secteurs, mais garantie des conditions très avantageuses d’exploitation à plusieurs compagnie américaines. La polarisation droite/gauche s’accentue. Tout le monde est mécontent.


Extrait de notes de cours du Professeur Ovide Bastien, Collège Dawson, cours Chile : Underside of Economic Miracle

The great depression of the 1930s hit Chile very bad. Extremely dependent on revenues originating from its high copper exports, Chile was traumatized when the bottom fell out of the copper market. It thus moved away from its previous free-market orientation and became a pioneer of relatively strong government intervention. The economy, it was felt, should become more diversified, less dependent on the exterior markets, and the immense gap between the haves and the have-nots should be addressed. Government intervention, and not unfetterd market forces, was to become the key element to foster this evolution. Although foreign owned copper mines remained the major source of government resources, the Chilean government intervened quite actively in the economy. (…) Thanks to credit policies and protective tariffs, a diverse industrial base was developed in textile and light manufacturing, supplying goods for a rapidly increasing domestic market. The Chilean government also pioneered in creating social services to help out those citizens marginalized by market forces. (…) From 1938 and through the 1940s, the Radical Party, which represented a middle-of-the-road ideology, was able to govern by obtaining the support of the Socialist and Communist parties. In the 1950s, with the extension of the vote to women and the simultaneous emergence of a US instigated Cold War anti-communist mentality, the Radical Party continued to govern, but this time with the support of the conservative parties of Chile.

Unité Populaire et coup d’État


11 septembre 1973, Santiago

Aux élections de 1970, la gauche présente un candidat unique, le Dr. Allende, sous la bannière de « l’Unité Populaire ». Il propose un ambitieux programme de transition vers une économie planifiée de type socialiste, la nationalisation complète des mines de cuivre, une redistribution radicale de la propriété terrienne. Le modèle proposé par Allende est nommément « anti-capitaliste » et contre l’interférence américaine dans les affaires économiques et politiques chilienne. Allende sort gagnant d’une lutte électorale à 3, qui l’opposent aux sociaux-démocrates sortant et au « Partido Nacional » populiste de droite.

Le Chili, en 1970, c’est :
∑ 95.8% des terres sont distribuées à une poignée de propriétaires terriens.
∑ 2% de la population retire 46% du PIB.
∑ Les américains possèdent l'ensemble des mines de cuivres du pays, ce qui représente 85% des exports et totalise 1.5M$ de profits PAR JOURS, des sommes essentiellement siphonnées hors du pays.
∑ Un nombre alarmant d’enfants mal-nourris et de mortalité infantile.

S'ensuit une période de radicalisation de la société et de résistance aux réformes de la part des grands propriétaires. En 1973 (l'année du choc pétrolier), l'inflation est hors de contrôle et les grèves dans différents secteurs paralysent la société. La classe moyenne chilienne, particulièrement frappée par le choc économique, est divisée. Le gouvernement américain décide d’appuyer par toutes les voix possibles les efforts de renversement du gouvernement Allende, car le Chili est considéré comme stratégique dans la lutte globale contre le communisme. Les fonds mis à la disposition des opposants à Allende sont énormes et le support logistique impressionnant : une cellule de surveillance de la situation chilienne est mise en place à la Maison-Blanche. La presse chilienne appelle de plus en plus ouvertement à l’intervention militaire.

De 1970 à 1973, des éléments réactionnaires de l’armée chilienne s’apprêtent à organiser un coup. Le Général Schneider, chef de l’armée chilienne mais modéré notoire est éliminé dès les premiers jours du gouvernement Allende. Le 11 septembre 1973, le général en chef de l’armée de terre chilienne, Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (de concert avec les généraux en chef des 3 autres corps d’armée : l’aviation, la marine et la police nationale), lance le tristement célèbre coup d'État, au cours duquel l’aviation militaire bombarde le palais présidentiel. La légende veut qu'Allende se soit suicidé après sa dernière adresse au peuple à la radio, plutôt que de se rendre. Il se peut aussi qu'on l'ait exécuté.

Extrait de notes de cours du Professeur Ovide Bastien, Collège Dawson, cours Chile : Underside of Economic Miracle

« On October 11, one month after the coup, Pinochet made his first ‘state of the nation’ message. He declared that on the 11 September, it was the ‘Hand of God’ which had made its presence felt in Chile. The Junta, he said, had a mission : purifying Chile of its vices, ridding national life of ‘politicking, sectarianism and demagoguery’ ».

Pinochet entreprend une répression des éléments progressistes de la société, brise les mouvements sociaux, syndicaux et populaires. On compte généralement autour de 4000 victimes directes de la répression, incluant des meurtres à l’étranger (Général Prats, Orlando Letelier) et des victimes non-chiliennes (le film Missing, de Costa Gavras, relate la mort en détention du militant américain Charles Horman). La torture est systématique. De concert avec les juntes en place dans le cône sud de l’Amérique du Sud, la police politique chilienne contrôle tout. La justice chilienne est constamment contournée et les cours militaires sont couramment solicités pour juger des civils. Les syndicats ne sont pas abolis, sauf la « Confédération Unie des Travailleurs (CUT)», mais sont vidés de tous éléments potentiellement progressistes. Plusieurs partis de gauches se reforment à l’étranger et participent a des efforts de guérillas clandestines.

Aussitôt au pouvoir, Pinochet entreprend des politiques économiques dont s'inspireront bientôt les Reagan et Thatcher (« laissez-faire » économique professé par des conseillers économiques de « l’École de Chicago »). Pinochet établit en 1980 une constitution qui lui permet de se faire plébisciter président tous les 8 ans. Il y enchâsse une loi de 1978 sur l’Amnistie contre les crimes de la dictature. À partir de 1986, un ouverture lente commence au Chili, où un certain nombre de partis politiques sont autorisés et une plus grande liberté de presse est tolérée (suite à l’« accord national », 1985).

Transition

En 1988, à la surprise générale, il perd le plébiscite (de type « oui/non ») devant le reconduire comme président. Il crée une plus grande surprise encore en acceptant sa défaite et en quittant la présidence. Sa constitution lui garantie cependant une longue transition de 17 mois, le maintient de son poste à la tête des armées et le contrôle sur un nombre-clé de nominations au Sénat national. Il contrôle ainsi plusieurs leviers verrouillants les réformes et la prosécution des criminels de la dictature, en plus de maintenir les éléments progressistes dans la peur d’un nouveau coup de force militaire.

Patricio Aylwin est élu président en 1989 et commence son mandat de 5 ans en 1990. Il est le représentant d’une coalition de partis désignée sous le nom de « la concertation ». Cette coalition comprend les partis qui furent membres de l’Unité Populaire d’Allende. Depuis 1989, elle domine la scène politique chilienne. Eduardo Frei Jr à succédé à Aylwin en 1995, et Ricardo Lagos est président depuis 2000. La principale coalition d’opposition, « l’alliance », réunie les partis de droite, dont le Partido Nacional. Les élections présidentielles sont prévues pour décembre 2005 et Michelle Bachelet, membre du Parti Socialiste et ministre de la Défense, portera les couleurs de « la concertation ».

Extrait de notes de cours du Professeur Ovide Bastien, Collège Dawson, cours Chile : Underside of Economic Miracle

« The man who had ruled over the destiny of Chile for nearly seventeen years with an iron fist kept busy in the period preceding the inauguration on March 11, 1990. He consolidated the power of the military by upgrading laws that banned civilian interference with military budgets, promotions or education. He guaranteed the armed forces 10% of all gross revenues of state copper firms. At military ceremonies he assured his troops that he would protect them from ‘unjust’ prosecution. In October 1989 he warned that ‘the day they touch any of my men, the state of law is ended’.

His method for maintaining his influence over the supreme court of Chile was fairly straightforward : he offered all justices over seventy-five a generous bonus for early retirement. (…) only four out of ten eligible candidates declined the offer. Pinochet was thus able to name six more judges.

The man who had ousted thousands of Popular Unity civil servants after the coup, now drafted a law protecting all civil servants from dismissal. He (…) hurried to privatize prized government assets : television stations, newspapers and Lan-Chile (national airline).

(…) the CNI (former DINA, national secret services/political police) had been under the personal command of the president; now he simply decided to turn the agency into army intelligence, thus shielding it from civilian prying (…).

(…) Strangely enough, during the last months of the military rule, several secret police veterans were assassinated; presumably, they knew too much. »

Organisation

Démocratie chilienne

Droits humains

Héritage de la dictature

En terme de droits humains, le Chili digère encore l’héritage de la dictature. Une commission de type « vérité et réconciliation » a eu lieu au Chili, mais le contrôle par les forces réactionnaires de positions-clés au parlement, qui rend presque impossible les amendements constitutionnels et l’adoption de lois musclées contre les crimes commis par la dictature, ainsi que la peur qu’inspire toujours l’armée, a rendu l’exercice stérile.

Quelques officiers de seconde importance ont du répondre de leurs actes concernant quelques événements, souvent lorsqu’il est question de la disparition de citoyens étrangers. Les principales têtes dirigeantes de la dictature, comme il est possible de le constater en suivant la saga juridique entourant Augusto Pinochet, demeurent généralement impunis. La résilience de certains militants des droits humains permet cependant de maintenir la pression, et certains faits sont lentement dévoilés.

Le cas Pinochet est patent dans la difficulté de poursuivre devant la justice chilienne les criminels de la dictature. La constitution de 1980 garantie un siège de sénateur à vie aux présidents sortants, ce qui alloue une immunité parlementaire à la clé face à la justice chilienne (qui s’ajoute à la loi d’amnistie des crimes de la dictature de 1978). En 1998, un juge espagnol enquêtant sur la disparition de citoyens espagnols sous la dictature au Chili obtient du gouvernement Anglais la mise en résidence surveillée du Général Pinochet, alors en visite au Royaume-Uni. Après plusieurs mois de suspense, la justice britannique se prononce cependant contre l’extradition en Espagne de l’ex-dictateur, entre autres pour des raisons de santé. Pinochet invoque effectivement son piètre état de santé et sa sénilité.

Rentré au Chili (ou l’armée l’acceuille en grande pompe), la pression devient insupportable sur Pinochet pour qu’il démissionne de son poste de chef des armées, puisqu’il affirme lui-même sa sénilité. Il acquiesce, mais conserve son poste de sénateur.

Il participe a une entrevue télévisée en 2003 pour célébrer les 30 ans du coup d’État, où il se montre en pleine forme. Il démissionne de son poste de sénateur. Les requêtes pleuvent pour lever l’immunité dont il jouit (via la loi d’amnistie), mais sont à tous les coups refusées par la Cour suprême chilienne, l’interprète de la constitution.

La vérité sur les crimes de la dictature est très difficile à faire. 30 000 chiliens auraient souffert de la torture, et 4000 personnes auraient été tuées par la junte. Le « raffinement » des techniques de tortures, de meurtres et de prosécution contournant les règles élémentaires de la justice chilienne et internationale ont fait de la junte chilienne un exemple d’horreur structurée. Plusieurs « camps » ont opéré au Chili, dont le stade national. Un des plus « célèbre » est celui du navire-école « La Esmeralda », un grand voilier de la marine de guerre chilienne où plusieurs chiliens ont été torturés dans les premiers jours de la dictature, dans le port de Valparaiso. La figure de proue de « La Esmeralda » est un condor. Plusieurs témoignages parlent aussi du largage dans l’océan de prisonniers vivants mais éventrés, enchaînés, à partir d’hélicoptères.

Une longue liste d’acteurs importants du gouvernement Allende (des ministres, des militaires loyalistes, des ambassadeurs) a été traquée et exécutée entre 1973 et 1976, au Chili comme à l’étranger, dans le cadre du « Plan Condor ». La collaboration des dictatures brésiliennes et argentines est généralement admise. Le poète Pablo Neruda, ambassadeur à Paris lors de la première année du gouvernement Allende, meurt à Santiago dans les premières semaines du régime Pinochet.

Extrait de notes de cours du Professeur Ovide Bastien, Collège Dawson, cours Chile : Underside of Economic Miracle

« On April 19, 1978, Pinochet decided the time had come to absolve all his men of their crimes. He issued Decree Law 2191 which granted amnesty to all ‘authors, accomplices or concealers’ of politically connected crimes committed since the coup. The time has come, the law stipulated, to ‘leave hatreds behind’ and to foster national reunification. As a result of this amnesty, several hundred imprisoned leftists were freed and sent directly into exile but its major effect was to leave totally unpunished those who had perpetrated brutal and relentless repression. »

Post-dictature

Depuis la fin de la dictature, la minorité mapuche a recommencé à se faire entendre. Des allégations de torture sont portées par Amnistie internationale contre l’État chilien concernant des leaders mapuches emprisonnés.

Constitution avec charte des droits

Une charte est absente de la constitution chilienne. La constitution garantie cependant l’habeas corpus. Le Chili est signataire de la Charte des Nations Unies. La loi d’amnistie garantie l’immunité contre les crimes de guerre. Un amendement à la constitution nécessite les 2/3 des voix du Congrès National, un nombre impossible à atteindre selon la répartition actuelle.

Éventail des idéologies représentées

Scène politique

La scène politique est dominée par 2 coalitions :

« La Concertacion » réunie les partis Socialistes, Sociaux-démocrates et Chrétiens-Démocrates. La Concertacion est au pouvoir depuis les élections de 1989. Elle gouverne en pratiquant des politiques économiques néo-libérale, et fait ce qu’elle peut avec les politiques sociales.

Les chrétiens-démocrates ont été originellement des supporters du coup, mais s’en sont distancés alors qu’il est devenu clair que les militaires n’allaient pas retourner rapidement le pouvoir aux civils. De plus, les réformes économiques de Pinochet n’ont pas seulement éliminé le travail du gouvernement Allende, mais aussi des acquis du précédent gouvernement Chrétien-Démocrate d’Éduardo Frei.

« L’Allianza » est une coalition de droite populiste réunie autour du « Partido Nacional ». Le Partido Nacionaln’a jamais exercé le pouvoir au Chili. Son existence précède le coup d’État et est considérés par certains comme le « parti de la dictature ».

Scène sociale

On retrouve dans la société chilienne un très large éventail de tendances politiques, allant de l’extrême droite à l’extrême gauche, en passant par les groupes altermondialistes, les groupes d’autonomistes indigènes, les groupes de théologiens de la libération et les groupes para-militaires d’extrême droite.


Médias

Les médias sont souvent la propriété de groupes conservateurs, comme les journaux Mercurio et La secunda (l’existence de ces deux journaux précède la dictature, mais ont été des voix pro-junte avant et pendant la dictature). Quelques postes de télévisions sont associés au clergé. L’État est propriétaires d’une chaîne télé généralement considérée comme indépendante, ainsi que d’un journal. Le Chili est 42ième sur la liste de Reporters sans frontières de la liberté de presse, un résultat moyen qui le place dans le 2ième quart du classement.

Type de régime politique

Présidence et Congrès National

Le système politique chilien est structuré à l’exemple du système américain : il est composé de 3 branches, soit la présidence (pouvoir exécutif), le Congrès National (pouvoir législatif) et la justice (pouvoir judiciaire).

Le président est élu au suffrage universel tous les 5 ans. Le président nomme un conseil des ministres. Comme au États Unis et contrairement au Canada, les ministres n’ont pas à être des élus. La constitution de 1980 a retiré au président le privilège de nommer ou de relever de ses fonctions le général en chef des armées.

Le Congrès est composé de 2 chambres : une chambre des députés (120 sièges) et un Sénat (38 élus + 9 nommés). Un tiers du Sénat actuel est composé de sénateurs nommés à vie par Pinochet. Les sièges électifs du Congrès sont en jeu pour des mandats de 6 ans. Un tiers de la chambre des députés est renouvelé par élections tous les 2 ans.

La cour suprême du Chili est composée de 10 juges nommés à vie par le président. Les juges actuels ont tous été nommés sous Pinochet, dont 6 pendant la période de transition.

L’armée est redevable devant le Président, via son ministre de la défense. La police nationale, part intégrante de l’armée en 1973 et 1990, est maintenant la responsabilité du ministre de l’intérieur. Les membres de la police nationale conservent toutefois un rang militaire.

Un régime unitaire

Contrairement aux Etats-Unis, dont le Chili s’inspire pour sa structure gouvernementale, la république est un régime unitaire central : le territoire est divisé en une quinzaine de divisions administratives, mais elles disposent de peu d’autonomie face au gouvernement central. Le président nomme les gouverneurs régionaux.

Partis politiques

Le mode électoral par listes encourage les partis à former des coalitions. Les principaux partis actifs au Chili sont :
Coalition « Concertacion (Concertation des partis pour la démocratie)» : PS, PSD, PDC , Parti pour la démocratie (centre-gauche, au pouvoir); Coalition « Allianza (Alliance pour le Chili )» : Parti National (droite populiste «pinochétiste»), Union Démocrate Indépendante, Rénovation Nationale ; Parti Communiste;

Enjeux politiques locaux

La politique économique néo-libérale menée sans temps d’arrêt depuis 1973 est un enjeu important au Chili. Elle affecte d’abord les conditions de travail, alors que le code du travail adopté par Pinochet en 1980 est resté relativement inchangé (le droit à la syndicalisation a été légèrement facilité). La santé et la sécurité au travail est un immense problème. L’écart riches/pauvres est très prononcé. Les répercussions sur l’environnement – qualité de l’air, protection des forêts, des eaux – semblent ne pas inquiéter les décideurs.

Le Chili a refusé de s’associer aux américains dans l’invasion de l’Irak, mais a conclu un accord de libre-échange avec eux qui s’ajoute à un accord d’association avec l’UE. Le Chili a été l’hôte du sommet de la Communauté économique Asie-Pacifique (APEC), en 2004.

Un scandale concernant la corruption et le financement occulte des partis a éclaboussé la coalition « Concertacion » en 2004 et 5 députés ont vu leur immunité levée pour permettre les poursuites.

La « démocratisation » du Chili, c’est-à-dire le déverrouillage des mécanismes installés par Pinochet contre les réformes structurelles des institutions, est un dossier toujours très actuel.

Le Chili poursuit des efforts de conciliations avec son voisin péruvien (mesure de confiance en matières militaires), et tente de trouver un terrain d’entente avec la Bolivie concernant l’accès a un port gazier. L’instabilité politique en Bolivie (rumeurs de guerres civiles) rend cependant improbable une résolution rapide de ce différent vieux de 120 ans.

En conclusion

La transition et la paix n’est pas encore faite au Chili suite à la dictature. Il est positif que la transition se soit effectuée dans la paix, et la liberté du Chilien moyen s’est agrandie. Cependant, d’une part, les criminels de la dictature n’ont toujours pas été punis; d’autre part, la scène politique est toujours monopolisée par le clivage « concertacion » versus les forces occultes de l’ex-Junte. Électoralement, depuis 15 ans, « la concertacion » n’a jamais quitté le pouvoir et il n’y a donc eu aucune transition pacifique d’un gouvernement élu a un autre depuis 1970.

Il est important de comprendre que la société chilienne elle-même est encore extrêmement divisée concernant les années Pinochet. Il serait faux de dire que personne au Chili ne le supporte, sinon une frange occulte mais puissante de la population. Même parmi les classes très pauvres, on retrouve des supporters de la junte. Des familles entières sont encore divisées sur la question.

Le Chili est un exportateur de modèle pour l’Amérique du Sud présentement, qu’on applaudisse son exemple ou non. Le Chili a envoyé des experts au Mexique en 1995 suite à la crise économique. Le Chili verse de l’argent au FMI, alors que son voisin péruvien est receveur. Le Chili s’en définitivement mieux tiré d’affaire dans les dernières années que ses voisins argentins et péruviens. Le Chili a signé un accord de libre-échange avec les États Unis et pourrait bien être un faux frère auprès de ses voisins au sein du MERCOSUR, notamment le Brésil, en vue des négociations de la ZLÉA.

Mouvements sociaux et forces progressistes

Le mouvement social et les forces progressistes récupèrent lentement du traumatisme de la dictature. Suite au coup d’État, les militants ont été pourchassés, tués, torturés et certains ont fui dans la clandestinité. 500,000 chiliens sont partis en exil. Les Parti Communiste et Socialiste ont entrepris une guérilla (« Front Patriotique Manuel Rodriguez »).

Pendant la dictature, quelques mouvements sporadiques ont été sévèrement réprimés. Des sursauts de mobilisation populaire ont eu lieu en 1978 et en 1983. Suite à une tentative d’assassinat de Pinochet, en 1986, une « dernière » vague de répression fini d’achever l’opposition clandestine.

La mobilisation des mères des personnes disparues apparaît comme une des seules manifestation durable de mobilisation par un groupe. Le mouvement « Donde estan? (où sont-ils?)» manifestait quotidiennement sur des places publiques pour demander des comptes sur les personnes volatilisées dans les premières années de la junte. Comme beaucoup de cas individuels n’ont jamais été résolus, plusieurs familles travaillent encore à la cause de la vérité sur les crimes de la dictature.

Suite à la dictature, la Confédération unie des travailleurs (CUT) est sortie de l’illégalité, tout comme les partis communistes et socialistes, et la Fédération des étudiants du Chili (FECH).

Plusieurs difficultés ont compliqué la résurgence des mouvements progressistes au Chili :
- La crainte et la méfiance d’un autre coup d’État dans la population comme chez les militants
- Les espoirs mis dans la coalition de « La concertacion »
- L’obstruction systémique des éléments réactionnaires occupant toujours des postes importants dans les administrations publiques, académiques, policières et militaires
- L’attachement romantique aux « luttes d’hier » qui aliène la vieille génération à la jeune génération de militants

Alors qu’à la fin de la présidence Allende 35% de la population était syndiqué. On n’en compte plus qu’environ 10%. Une grande « grève générale » menée par la CUT a eu lieu en août 2003. C’était la première depuis 1973 faite à l’appel de cette centrale syndicale.

Extrait de notes de cours du Professeur Ovide Bastien, Collège Dawson, cours Chile : Underside of Economic Miracle

« Some students paid dearly for their activism. In 1985, an engineering student, Patricio Manzano, died after his arrest in a police raid on a FECH project : his heart stopped beating during his detention. In that same year, Rodrigo Rojas, a nineteen-years-old chilean exile visiting from Washington, and Carmen Quintanas, eighteen, were participating in a two-days national protest when they were confronted by an army patrol in a shantytown, dwosed with gasoline, set afire and abandoned in a roadside ditch. (…) Carmen was hospitalized, and, thanks to solidarity groups in Quebec, treated in a highly specialized Montreal hospital; She survived (…)She courageously returned to Chile and joined the struggle for freedom. »

Colectivos de trabajador@s (CC.TT)

Colectivos de trabajador@s (CC.TT - Collectifs de travailleurs) est un organisme fondé il y a 5 ans pour informer et organiser le militantisme ouvrier par la base. Il organise des ateliers de formation et d’éducation populaire pour les droits et la conscientisation des travailleurs, et des événements dans les quartiers populaires de 3 villes du Chili : Santiago, Concepcion (principalement auprès des débardeurs) et La Serena (principalement dans les bidonvilles). Il se veut un réseau d’appui aux initiatives ouvrières et populaire, et un outil de renforcement du pouvoir collectif des travailleurs.

Chaque bureau compte une dizaine de bénévoles.

Ma mission auprès d’eux sera d’aider à intégrer et uniformiser en un seul portail les sites Web des trois branches de l’organisme.

Sources :

wikipedia.org (Chile, Santiago, Allende, Pinochet)

CIA.gov (World Factbook, Chile)

US State Department - State.gov (Country Overview, Chile)

CHILE (coursepack), par Ovide Bastien, Collège Dawson, 2004

L’état du monde 2003 et 2004

Site Web du Monde Diplomatique

Site Web d’Alternatives

Rapport de stage et témoignage d’Annie Bonsaint, stagiaire 2004 d’Alternatives

Notes tirées de la conférence "les fractures de la mondialisation: exemple de la Chine et de l'Amérique du Sud", UQÀM - 23 septembre 2004, Institut d'études internationales de Montréal, présentation de Sylvain Turcotte, Chaire Raoul-Dandurand, « Rôle particulier de l'Amérique du Sud dans la mondialisation »

Indirect Approach: Basil Liddell Hart

Basil Liddell Hart
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from B.H. Liddell Hart)

Basil Henry Liddell Hart (October 31, 1895 - January 29, 1970) was a military historian and is considered to have greatly influenced the development of armoured warfare in the 20th century.

Liddell Hart served as an officer in the British Army during World War I, where he witnessed the horrors of a war of attrition. He set out in the following years to discover why the casualty rate had been so terribly high during the war and arrived at a set of principles that he considered the basis of all good strategy, principles that, he claimed, were ignored by most commanders in World War I.

These principles can be reduced to a single phrase, the indirect approach, and two fundamentals:

* Direct attacks against an enemy firmly in position almost never work and should never be attempted
* To defeat the enemy one must first upset his equilibrium, which is not accomplished by the main attack, but must be done before the main attack can succeed.


In Liddell Hart's words,


In strategy the longest way round is often the shortest way there; a direct approach to the object exhausts the attacker and hardens the resistance by compression, whereas an indirect approach loosens the defender's hold by upsetting his balance.


He also claimed that


The profoundest truth of war is that the issue of battle is usually decided in the minds of the opposing commanders, not in the bodies of their men.


This argues that one succeeds by keeping one's enemy uncertain about the situation and one's intentions, and by delivering what he does not expect and is therefore not prepared for.

He arrived at his conclusions after studying the great strategists of history and their victories. He believed the indirect approach was the common element in the men he studied. He also claimed the indirect approach was a valid strategy in other fields of endeavor, such as business, romance, etc.

Liddell Hart published his theories during the 1920s. They were well-received by many of the younger officers who would emerge as leaders in World War II. Paradoxically, Liddell Hart saw his theories successfully adopted by Germany and used against Britain and its allies. His theories were a central part of the German blitzkrieg tactics which were designed to hit the enemy so fast and so hard that he would not be able to establish or maintain an equilibrium. They were also openly endorsed by Germany's most successful general, Erwin Rommel.

He retired from the British Army as a Captain in 1927 (after being invalided out and placed on halfpay because of the long term effects of gassing which he suffered on active service in World War I), and spent the rest of his career as a writer. He was initially a military analyst for various British newspapers. Later he began publishing military histories and biographies of great commanders who, he thought, were great because they illustrated the principles of good strategy. Among these were Scipio Africanus Major, William T. Sherman, and T.E. Lawrence. Shortly after World War II he interviewed/debriefed many of the highest ranking German generals and published their accounts as The Other Side of the Hill (UK Edition) and German Generals Talk (US Edition).

The principal posthumous biography of Liddell Hart, Alex Danchev's Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart, written with the cooperation of Liddell Hart's widow, is startling for its candor. Among its revelations are that Liddell Hart connived at the planting of an endorsement of his own work in the English language version of Panzer Leader, the autobiography of Heinz Guderian. Although Guderian greatly admired Liddell Hart's work, and avidly read his newspaper columns, the German language edition of Guderian's autobiography gives Liddell Hart's work no greater preference than that of his contemporary, J.F.C. Fuller whom Guderian also admired.

Liddell Hart's personal library is now ensconced within the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King's College London.
[edit]


Partial bibliography

* B. H. Liddell Hart, A Greater Than Napoleon: Scipio Africanus (W Blackwood and Sons, London, 1926; Biblio and Tannen, New York, 1976)
* B. H. Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled (W. Blackwood and Sons, London, 1927; Greenhill, London, 1989)
* B. H. Liddell Hart, Reputations 10 Years After (Little, Brown, Boston, 1928)
* B. H. Liddell Hart, Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American (Dodd, Mead and Co, New York, 1929; Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1960)
* B. H. Liddell Hart, The Ghost of Napoleon (Yale University, New Haven, 1934)
* B. H. Liddell Hart, The Defence of Britain (Faber and Faber, London, 1939; Greenwood, Westport, 1980)
* B. H. Liddell Hart, The Tanks - A History of the Royal Tank Regiment and its Predecessors: Volumes I and II (Praeger, New York, 1959)


* B. H. Liddell Hart, The Memoirs of Captain Liddell Hart: Volumes I and II (Cassell, London, 1965)

[edit]


Further reading

* Brian Bond, Liddell-Hart: A Study of his Military Thought (Cassell, London, 1977)
* Alex Danchev, Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart
* John Mearsheimer, Liddell Hart and the Weight of History

[edit]


External link

* Catalogue of Liddell Hart papers (http://www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/cats/liddell/li0.htm) at the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King's College London

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Liddell_Hart"

"When you make love to a porcupine, do it carefully"

Conférence de Lloyd Axworthy
Concordia University
30 septembre 2004


"When you make love to a porcupine, do it carefully" - about relationship of Canada with US

World of uncertainties & horrible certainties
politics no more feeled by people as place to set goals & directions
It's an arena of debate and policy-making that was... but that is now disconnected from the people.
Thaylard de Chardin: "Something tremendous is happenning... But what is it?"

"Our search to become global citizens"
A child soldier was told "you will have to learn not to cry"
there's roughlly 15000 child-soldiers in Columbia
Ouganda
Ethiopia
etc...
It's a dark side of globalization
... (some bizarre ranting about linking western worlds sufferings post 9/11 and sufferings of child-soldiers)...

Financing the "underworld"

Federal budget of Canada --- profilactic of terror

Wars: always increase the power of the authority ( gov ) over the individual

Post-WWII institutions: a "constitution" for the conduct and stands of the world

now it's a new paradigm: we need a new "world constitution"

Businesses "investing" in schools, education, community: ???
we must redifine rule of citizenship

we must consider sacrifices as global citizens, we have responsibilities, interdependencies

a realistic and a imaginistic paradigm

the public opinion "attention-deficit disorder"
--- Axworthy blames universities and think tanks for not making their "imaginative work"

we must find needs underlying terror's appeal
so far, we only have found quick-fixes to it.

Axworthy: i'm a firm believer in Utopia that "we are capable", "we can make a change"

canadian-made idea of "responsibility to protect"
- to protect individuals, not governments
- so that individuals can no more hide behind gov. prerogative & authority to fly away with murder, rape, abductions, etc...
Obligation to enforce by and with force

a balance between self-determination and right to intervene = responsibility to protect individuals

Prevention is part of that (before the conflict arise)

Require that int'l institutions intervene
- should have its own constabulary to avoid commissioning & free-rider, that have a real capacity to intervene
also: against environmental, social and physical deteriorations

All this is not cost-free
involves changing behaviour

This could become (our?) focal point in foreign policy

Global understanding requires imagination
dealing with:
- mortality
- refugees
- prevention and preemption

- changing decision-making
"how to become democrats"
- the dropping turnouts to elections is a concern: can we say democracy is working right now?

examples:
- changes in Senate: should be made responsible - and should be elected - for nominations like ambassadorships
- a "ministry of peace" should be created" that would promote a peace agenda (hihi: minipax)

Mixed Game Strategy: Siege of Québec, September 1759

Question 1 – Mixed Game Strategy

Siege of Québec, September 1759

General Wolfe is commander of the English force in New France. He is sieging Québec, capital of New France since last June. He is bombing the fortified city daily from the south shore of the Saint-Laurent river (Lévis).

Step 1 : The Mission

General Wolfe has to take Québec before Winter comes.

Step 2 : Situation and Course of Action

The situation is that winter is coming fast and time might force Wolfe to retreat to Louisbourg until spring before supply route is blocked.
Wolfe as 2 options before him : attempt a landing to the East or to the West of Québec, in order to force battle.
Montcalm, the French Commander, faces a different sets of data. His suppply route from France is blocked by the British Navy. He can only rely on a ragtag team of elite french troops (about 1500), poorly trained local militias and indigenous allies (a total of around 10 000).
If enemy tries a landing to the West, this would bring them right under the walls of the city. Yet the terrain makes it unlikely that the enemy will land that way. On the East flank, the terrain is more favourable, and the British controls the river on both shores of the Orléans Island.
The decision for Montcalm is to how to split his thin forces : he will keep some inside Québec and deploy troops wether to the East or to the West.

Step 3 : Analysis of the Opposing Courses of Action

Wolfe having 2 options to Montcalm two, 4 conflicts could arise. See figure 1.

Step 4 : Comparison of Available Courses of Action

If Wolfe decided on landing to the West, he would land his troops directly at the doorstep of the fortified city. This would force Montcalm into a decisive, final battle. However, if French recce spots the landing force early on, the steep hill to be climbed by a large number of troops with equipments (cannons, riffles, ammunitions) before reaching the « plains of Abraham » can heavily jeopardize chances of success. If Wolfe decided to land to the East, he would meet French resistance upon landing and would still be at some distance from the city walls. This would provide time for the French troops to retreat and reorganize before the final battle.
Wolfe wanted to force a decisive battle within a short period of time. Montcalm desires to keep Wolfe the furthest from the city wall. He wants to gain time in order for Winter to come and force Wolfe out to Louisbourg.
In order to maximize his possibilities of engaging French troops the closest to Québec City within a short time-frame, the West flank is Wolfe best option.

Step 5 : Decision

Wolfe decided to land at l’Anse-aux-foulons, on the West flank of Québec City.

Discussion

If Montcalm decided to send his troops to the East, he exposed himself to a unlikely landing to the West. If he dispatched troops to the West, he exposed himself to a certain landing to the East. Since he sought to protect Québec from a British landing, he had to defend his Eastern flank in priority.

Wolfe did land his troops to the West of Québec in the night of September 12, 1759. By the time Montcalm found it out, 5000 British troops had made it to the Plains of Abraham. In the morning of September 13, the two sides met in a battle at the doors of the city. Within 30 minutes, the British side erupted as victorious. Both Generals were nevertheless fatally wounded in the battle. On September 18, Québec officially capitulated.

The British victory was due to many factors, including good reconnaissance, intelligence, and wit. The troops were experienced, in sharp contrast with the amateurism and lack of cohesion of the French forces.

But it is good planning that made the difference in landing troops on the good flank. The two highest rows of Figure 1 shows that, choosing the West flank, Wolfe was certain of getting into battle close to Québec city. Going to the East, his landing force could meet such resistance that a battle close to the walls was less likely.

Sources :
http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2497791
Laurier Lapierre, 1759 : The Battle For Canada, (Toronto : McLelland & Stewart, 1990), 305 pages
Jacques Lacoursière, Québec : une histoire populaire – Origines à 1791, (Montréal : Septentrion, 1995), 488 pages

Poli419 10 janvier 2005

Poli419
10 janvier 2005


EARLY DETERRENCE & STRATEGIC WARFARE

Deterrence is a strategic posture : « If you do this I will hurt you ».

Deterrence & punishment in history
- The Roman legions as a strategic weapon : destroy urban centers, 90% success rate by treath of slaughter by legions
- Gen. William Sherman, March to the Sea (Sept. To Dec 1864) : infliction of punishment to civilians, burning down farms and towns to the ground.
- Naval blockade of Germany in WWI : intakes blocked by half by end of war, precipitated collapse of military-political hierarchy.

Advent of air power
- Ability to strike directly and rapidly urban populations
- Theory of urban mob raising against elites : Paris Commune of 1848, enemies lay in enemies themselves.
Use of balloon by Napoleon to help diirect artillery
Airship ban in the 1880s

Aircrafts : more stearable than Zeppelins
1911 : 1st use of A/C in warfare (Italy-Turkey)
1915 : German bombings of England

Assumption was that civilians would panic, as they did in Coventry, 1916.
(but NO use of gas)

First hints at knowledge and capacity for largescale destruction : accidental desctruction of port of Halifax, 1916, 1500 instantly killed

Interwar period and Guilio Douhet works on war with A/C : airdropping explosives, gases will make war last a few days, civilian panic and social collapse (assumption that social tissu of cities is less strong, decadent moral, ripe to collapse and government elites less ready to defend them)
- attempts to control or ban development of military aviation unsucesful. Coining term « Push-Button Warfare ».
- Biological warfare dev. : Brits develops Anthrax, Germans develops nerve gases : large deterrence B/W UK and Germany during WWII, Europe memory of largescale epidemics and diseases
Use of chemicals :
- Brits used it in Afghanistan B/W WWars
- Italians used it in Ethiopia (1935)
- Egyptians against Yemen (1960)
- Iraq + Iran (1980s)
Unit 100 &731 on Japanese Imperial Army in China
- Changchen Plague Experiment (Mandchuria/Mandchukuo being a large testing ground).
WWII Strategic Warfare
German raids over Rotterdam 1940, Yougoslavia, Stalingrad; Battle of England, V1-V2 attacks; Anglo-American bombings of Germany (specifically : Dresden, Hamburg) and Japan (night-time burning of Japan specifically designed to burn workers at their homes; night-time bombings killed more than nukes on Hiroshima & Nagasaki). Japan was about to collapse socially, as raise in crime rates indicates.

Tehran and Hanoi depopulated by 50% because of expectations of airstrikes.

Japanese attempts at balloon attacks over the Pacific Ocean into US territory

Weapon of Mass Destruction coined by the Soviets

POLI433 – Critics of Modernity 10 Janvier 2005

POLI433 – Critics of Modernity
10 Janvier 2005


Authors that we will work with :
- Eric VOEGELIN (« The New Science of Politics »)
- Leo STRAUSS (« Persecution & the Art of Writting »)
And maybe Micheal OAKSHOTT (« Rationalism in Politics »)

Get following articles :
- « Eclispe of Reality », Voegelin
- « Gospel in Culture », Ibid

Worthwhile text : « Revolt Against Modernity », McAlister

Ideology.
Struggle in field of political philosophy not unlike, or continuation of « Anciens VS. Modernes ». There is not a lot of « Anciens » left. But does that means Modernes are right?
Academics are the last resistance to modernism. Anciens are classicists and scholastics. Academics are the mainstay of Western philosophy & thinking. Anciens secluded themselves in academic circles. « last canadian ancien » : George Grant, especially what he says on death of red Toryism in Canada, 1965. Grant, « Technology & Empire ».
No or few relation B/W « old » Conservatism and actual so-called « compassionate » conservatism US-Style.

Philosophy and Ideology

Ideology coined as a term at end of 18thC, by De Tracy, « the science of Ideas » : philosophers as the product of physical pre-existing conditions

Prof. Text about Niemeyer’s « Nothingness in Paradise » : « Subordination of contempt of theory by will to dominate »
- text going back to Aristotle, Bk 6 of « Politics » (or « Ethics »?) : Contemplative theory, « to know other in otherness », « En soit » not « Pour soit ».
In itself is W/O method, the Will makes use of method, intellect in itself does not, it just pops-up.
Real in Reality, and later only real in counciousness, and later in contemplation of Reality (?)
« Reality closes down more the Real than it opens it up ».
Dominate to understand? Torture into submission in order to reveal its truth. To « have a plan » is modernism.
Ego is the instrument mediating B/W inquester and Otherness. Instrument filters the outcome.
« Modernity is deeply egotistical. Its us speaking to us. Its a monologue. Its subjective. It never transcend the subject. »
at a councious level, or subsidiary « subliminal » level, denies reality W/O being fully councious and in the know of the Truth.
People denying the Thruth. Becomes a circle. « Your denying, no I am not, yes you are, no I am not ».

Conflict Resolution Mardi 23 novembre 2004

Mardi 23 novembre 2004
Conflict Resolution


Exam question:
adjudication, ch.5, p.173-179
advantages and risks of adjudication


Today:

Ethics in negociation & group-thinking
Role of ethic "controversial" because leads to individual beliefs (what they are and come from, who people "want to be") and/or religious beliefs systems.
But It does exist.
becomes complicated to talk about.

meant to vigourously follow guidelines.

lawers" "what's ethics", "what we are allowed to do"
non-lawers: look inside, what they believe in, not believe in.

ethics are not a universal, objective guideline.

different sorts of ethics:

"ends justifies the means" ethic

professional/rule ethics (codes of ethic, professions and agencies)

social-contract ethics:
community context needed to survive, group-oriented, commmunity are moral bodies determining ground-rules, "duty and obligation" of individuals, what is best for the common good is the basis for the rule-making

personalistic ethics:
where rightness of actions is determined by one conscience. one's belief system is detemined by a lot of factor: way he was raised, what he reads, his religion...

"ends justifies the means for the greater good" kind of ethics, problems with this?

principles mashes and becomes very confuse, and not acting in a given situaation may be the good thing to do.

so easy to challenge the ethic of someone else.
ability to "reflect back" on a situation.

about tribes: the way tribes work, bound by certain commune stuff, they follow tribesman because of shared culture and PROTECTION instinct, traditional concept of protection. cultural concept: individualistic (West), communal (Africa). "unspoken social contract". follow the leader = everyone will be taken care of (conservative, organic concept of community).

challenges to "end justifies the mean"
difficulty of finding means to outcome, to measure it, the short-term/long-term gains paradox

About reading for today:
What is interesting is that it is put in a context that is applicable and applied.
For thursday:
detemine who we want to speak to, and meet.

POLI398Z Conflict Resolution: Class of Nov 11 - 2004

POLI398Z Conflict Resolution
Class of Nov 11 - 2004

mediator: to broker a deal b/w two parties

why a party would not want a mediator:
1 - thinks mediator is biased
2 - thinks it can win the conflict
3 - thinks it profits from status quo (mediator is threatening)

discussion about mediators' reaction to threats:
take this as any other moves from party involved and reason it over. "go to balcony" and think it over.
confidentiality questions.

"neutral" is a very diverse concept

danger that party starts to think mediator is on there side (active listening confusion/paradox)

mediator should'nt be the one delivering the terms of agreement: must directs parties ("shuttle diplomacy") to figure out where parties can meet if there is a possible "zopa"

if NOPA: try to reality-test parties: "is there something you want more than others", try get other person that its in there interest to move further: creating value pieced with negotiator talent

when people to suspicious about mediator bias, mediator should leave

being able to soften up people: talent

family law context: divorce: mediator: assymetry of power situation: challenge for mediator, because mediator is struggling with levelling and pulling up one party.

job is not to part with a party but to get to equal agreement, if circumstance not equal its a problem.

POLI398Z Conflict Resolution November 9, 2004

POLI398Z
Conflict Resolution
November 9, 2004

Debriefing FG&T exercise

Multi-party negotiation

in many situation, people need to build alliances and coalition to achieve objectives
this creates mix-motives situation in which people seek different things

- know who are actors
- understand who they represents (constituencies, departement)
- manage the info, use system to brake down complexity

mutual strategy - coalitional strat - individual strat
issu of trust & interdependance in coalition for them to hold

key challenges
formulating trade-offs
voting and majority-rule: paradoxes
most organisation will try really hard to reach consensus to avoid leaving people behind
communication challenges
- private caucusing
- multiple audience problem
behavioral challenges
- competitively in-group
- competitiveness of reprenting someone, being accountable to someone

keep in mind
- not everyone wants an agreement
- create face-saving options
- create process of agreement
- stay at table
- "pay for fairness"
- strive for equal rep.

tactics for influencing group decisions
don't go into meaning w/o allies
pay attention to seating arrangements
influence of voting arrangements (private/public)
don't display own agenda, but highlight agenda of others

blocking coalitions
control the process (negotiation & voting procedure)
take away resources (buying out)
restrict communication (lots of small informal meetings instead of one large meeting of a board)
must determine personal & institutional interests of DM

collect info before, but dont assume you have enough/ all the knowledge
use multiple equivalent offers simultaneously

Group DM is a form of negotiation

POLI398Z Conflict Resolution: Class of November 2nd, 2004

Class of November 2nd, 2004
POLI398Z Conflict Resolution


Diebriefing on Director/Producer Negotiation

Scores is about beginning to get a feel about what you would like to prepare in terms of issues and ranges before the negotiation.

one of the thing about revealing info, the negotiator dilemma, is becoming vulnerable in revealing to much.
It's what you reveal, when, and the goal of revealing.

strategic: reveal info being truthful while remaining strategic. protect perception. manage their perception of your BATNA (best alternative to negotiated agreement).

be able to read how info-giving is received: trust building in structuring an agreement.

nego not just bargaining.

role of reputation: barrier to you in negos.

expanding the pie

claiming/creating values

Where does the power comes from in negotiation?

From BATNA: best alternative to negotiated agreement
managing perception
your own BATNA and other party's BATNA
your batna: know what it is.
if what is offered is less than that walk away
negative zopa: zone of possible agreement

leave nego in door opening way.

relationship

3 kinds of issues
a) distributive issues: salary, budget, fees (zero-sum: dollars i get is dollars you loose)
b) integrative issues: trade-offs like actors, location and editorial control (not zero-sum)
c) compatible issues: the "easy" points where everyone agrees, win-wins

what you have to figure is what type of issues are what

competition is against your own best result

POLI 398 Int'l relations conflict resolution: Class of October 14, 2004

POLI 398 Int'l relations conflict resolution
Class of October 14, 2004

Class given by Me Catherine Duhamel
Practicing int'l human right law for 10 years
worked in Rwanda, Zaire, Kenya (election watch), Haiti

Pragmatic outview on local applications & handling of HR issues
how do we implement HR, denial of right influence on peace, is HR part of conflict resolution

HR: right possessed by an individual that cannot be withheld or withdrawn by a government, state

2 types:
a) economic, social & cultural
b) civil & political

Org of american states: case of Haiti abuses of HR, 1984, 2000

article 25 of UN covenant on civil & political rights.

in practice:
in a electoral context, the law is the tool to say how election is run, who is qualified to supervise, run, vote.

Haiti: constitutional order disruption (coup) in 1991
major election in 2000

insecurity, executions (reporters as well: Jean Dominique, the Bernard Derome of Haiti)
some perpretators and victims take refuge abroad, like in Canada, seeks refugee status

civic education
registration of voters
"tire-burning" demonstrations
training of electoral employees (illiterates, lack of material, poor enforcement of regulations at polling stations)
transport of voting material to polling station a way to rigg election (not transporting material to some area where you do not want people to cast ballot)
massive turnouts, long lines at polling station
secrecy of act of voting
intimidations - small communities bullying
police interventions
armed people presence
confusion in transmission of information betwen electoral offices on election day
logistic support lacking (electricity shortage)
attacks during counting of ballots

west civz: HR as primary rights
in developping countries where basic need are not met, civil rights and other HR takes a backseat and depends upon the will of political leadership

in canada, 12 000 victims of torture from all over the place, americas, africa, mid-east
3 canadians victims of torture abroad (Arar, Sampson, Kazemi), all dual-nationals.

perpetrators: 1995 investigation of war-crime unit
perpetrators have money, provisions
some not lucky enough: taxi driver, professors, among us
some less notorious than others (some are ex-ministers, officials of military juntas)
2002 int'l criminal court, institutions thats gonn hear instigators of massacres and genocide. tough to go for small-time criminal perpetrators

in canada, its possible to criminally prosecute them, civil prosecution (compensation), transfer them to internatiional tribunal, refuse refugee status

canada never prosecuted war criminals, but for court-martial of canadian militaries that abused somalis.

canada's action in foreign policy and in domestic policy are paradoxical

in practise, HR laws are applied conservatively, while it should be enforced more liberally

Readings for Conflict Resolution class, Oct. 5

"Approaches to peace" David Barash
Subject: International law

Inadequate mainly because no clear-cut enforcement mechanism

But it will be what we make of it.
Schemes of ending wars often founder at state level: state undermines or at best diminish the authority & effectiveness of int'l org
an unavoidable tension arise b/w state-centered world system and one organized around different fundamental values
state centerdness legitimize the use of violence for setting dispute
suggest superiority
prospect for disarmement difficult in appearance
"our current world syst works strongly against peaceful ethical or religious resolutions of conflict.
... makes it very difficult to deal effectively with problems that cross traditional borders.."

Classical writtings:
Francisco de victoria: thesis that war must be morally justifiable, 16th C
Hugo Grotius: "on the law of war and peace" 1625: "law of nature" that transcend law of nations, emanates from the fact that people are all ultimately of the same community. From him derives concept that states must avoid interferring in affairs internal to other states. Legitimacy f int'l law derives from legitimacy of national laws. "natural state" must govern interactions among states, they can be regulated, thiis regulation supercedes state authorities: international society exist.
Jeremy Bentham "principles of int'l law" (1783): first use of coinage "int'l law"

3 sources of int'l law:
1 - custom
"rule of diplomatic protocol"
"rules" are in the interest of all countries since if the representatives of opposing states could legally be harrassed, communication between states could quickly cease, to the disadvantage of all sides.
diplomatts are allowed a substantial leeway, including the ability to communicate freely and secretely with their home gov, as well as garantees on their safety.
2_ treaties
analogous to contracts among individuals
backing away from treaty obligations result in substantial loss of face and once treated a treaty-braker, a state may not be able to establish useful, reliable relationships with other states.
"rules of the road", beneficial to each sides: states have a strong interest in abiding by them.
3- courts
Int'l law requires courts to hear disputes and render decisions.
best known is int'l court of justice in La Hague, Netherlands.
Rotating membership of world jusrist
issues decisions about int'l law that are generally considered authoritative, although typically un-enforcable.
but: states are more and more accustomed to the idea of letting go enough sovereignty to settle dispute in court instead of in combat. Adherence to the dictates of the world court are "consensual", it iis up to the consent of the convicted!... community in which accused lawbraker could only be brought to trial if they agree!

Problem of enforcement
individual states insist on ther siovereignty. most emphatically do not recognize that any authority supercedes their own. Insist on a kind of latitude that they would never allow their own citiizens.

role of sanctions: 3 primary incentives: self-interest, duty and coercion.
rules followed out of purely utilitarian purposes. for the benefit of all. you have some confidence that others will also respect the law just as you do.
as member of a sociaty, individuals assumes some sort of responsibilty toward it and self-regulates himself: kantian categorical imperative.
world scene actors that defects: world opinion likely to disapprove and leads to ostracism, possible economic, political cultural sanctions. governments themselves have a strong stakes in their own legitimacy.

states sovereignty
states are not all "rational actors": 1/4 of all wars are civil
states do not enter treaties unbless they are willing to abide by it. they're exist usual reserves to withdraw within a given period of time if "supreme national interest" is jeopardized by terms oof treaty. who makes that decision? state itself.
states are political entity that have a monopoly over legitimate use of violence.
state goes to war because, says they:
they defend themselves (Israel 6 days war)
they are fulfilling treaty obligations (WW1)
they are intervening on the side of legitimate authority (US in vietnam)
the situation is anarchic and there is no legitimate authority (UN in Congo)
the conflict is within the realm of int'l organisations (UN, 1991 Gulf War)

in short, state sovereignty continues to reign, although semblance of int'l law is invoked. states are hesitant to circumvent day-to-day authority.


Law is important, crucial to civilization. law as antithesis of rule by brute force

critique of int'l law:
3rd world cuontries, revolutionary states: "int'l law established by and for western powers in support of their domination".

int'l law must be flexible

"hidden strenght of int'l law": compliance are non-events

because democratic government have a long-range interest in settling disputes amicably, that supercedes any short-term interests in winning a given dispute, they tend to abide by legal ruling, even those they dislike.
major powers are less likely to abide by law unless opponnents are so balanced that the potential cost of losing a case are less than those of further wrangling, and possibly war

violation of law are often sensational and dramatic whereas compliance is taken for granted, a non-event.

law of war (!)
since there is no higher authority than state, no state is making law "illegaly"
but war can be defined as followed: "the legal condition which equally permits two or more hostile groups to carry on a conflict by armed forces". - war represents a highly formalized interval during which violence may legitimately be practiced

Nuremberg principles
individuals are personally liable to criminal prosecution for crimes against intl law.
nuremberg charter:
1 crimes against peace (planning, preparing, initiating or waging a war of aggression)
2 crimes against humanity (murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian populations
3 war crimes, namely violations of laws and customs of war (violations against civilian pop, ill-treatment of POW, killing of hostages, plunder of public and private property, wanton destruction of cities, etc...

Tokyo principles:
Crime of omission: illegal failure to act

allowances for "military necessity": inherent right of individual or collective self-defense" art.51, UN Charter